An American and Nothing Else: The Great War and the Battle for National Belonging

Victorious America March

Sheet Music: Victorious America

“Victorious America March.” Clarence M. Jones. Chicago, New York: Frank K. Root & Company, 1918. James Weldon Johnson Collection, Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library.

On November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice with the Allies and the Great War came to a somber close. Nine million soldiers were dead and over 20 million wounded. Five million civilians had died from disease, starvation, or exposure over the four years of fighting. The United States suffered significantly fewer casualties, but nonetheless grieved its losses and began the epic work of demobilization—home again.

Photograph: 360th Colored Regiment arriving in N.Y.

“360th Colored Regiment arriving in N.Y. aboard S.S. Aquitania.” [ca. 1918]. Underwood & Underwood, NY.

Photograph: Colored soldiers who covered themselves in glory in France

[n.d.] Underwood & Underwood, NY.

Photograph: “Back to Home Land!” Removing the Casket of America’s Unknown Soldier from the Olympia, Washington, D.C.

[ca. 1919]. Keystone View Company, New York, NY.

As the nation began its victory march, tensions simmered over who could claim heroism and whether African Americans would be granted equal citizenship for their service. Regiments like the Harlem Hellfighters enjoyed nationwide renown, but most black dedication and accomplishment went unrecognized by the military and the white American public. The major awards and citations given to black officers and regiments had come from the French—despite discouragement from U.S. military headquarters.

Sheet Music: Welcome Home Again

One of the most successful African American composers in his time, J. Rosamond Johnson received a commission as a 2nd lieutenant in the 15th New York, which later became the 369th Infantry Regiment Harlem Hellfighters. The younger brother of poet, writer, and civil rights leader James Weldon Johnson, Rosamond gained prominence after he composed “Lift Every Voice and Sing” in 1900, which was adopted by the NAACP and named the “Black National Anthem.”

“Welcome Home Again.” Lieutenant J. Rosamond Johnson. New York: T.B. Harms and Francis, Day & Hunter, [ca. 1919]. James Weldon Johnson Collection, Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library.

Poster: Honor Roll, Fighting for Humanity

Unknown printer. “Honor Roll, Fighting for Humanity,” [1918].

Photographic Postcard: Colored Victory Boys

Postcard: “Colored Victory Boys, Camp Merritt, N.J.,” [ca. 1919]. The Hament-Romans Company, Baltimore, Md.

This commemorative poster celebrates William Frank Roach, who served in combat in France. He shipped out of Camp Merritt in New Jersey, the embarkation camp depicted in this postcard. Camp Merritt was the largest embarkation camp in the United States during the war—Private Roach was one of more than one million servicemen who passed through departed or returned through its gates. The handwritten commentary on the back of this card challenges resistance to black pride, as does the honor assigned to Roach in this poster.

Poster: True Blue

Poster: “True Blue,” 1919. E.G. Renesch, Chicago, Ill. Randolph Linsly Simpson African-American Collection, Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library.

Black soldiers confronted the meaning of homecoming in the wake of their newfound pride and global racial consciousness. Some dreamed of staying in Europe to live and thrive beyond the color line, while others were determined to pursue a better life back home—whatever the cost. Returning to New York, the Harlem Hellfighters marched the length of the city to the cheers of 250,000 onlookers. Chaos erupted when the parade arrived in Harlem, prompting their white captain to conclude: “It may not have been good military business, but it was great human business. And a nation of great, honest, human emotion is a great nation.”

Poster: Hear Our War Heroes

Unknown printer. “Hear our War Heroes.” Flyer for lecture by Col. William Hayward commander of colored troops in France, and Sgt. Henry Johnson of Albany, NY. n.d.

Colonel William Hayward was the white commander of the 369th Harlem Hellfighters who assigned them to fight as Les Enfants Perdus—the Lost Children—with the French High Command. Hayward was the son of a prominent white Republican senator from Nebraska and worked as a lawyer before the war. He had long advocated for New York to instate a black regiment, though on the condition he presided over it as an officer.

Sergeant Henry Johnson was a black veteran from Albany who had gained national fame through his bravery in battle while single-handedly capturing a German patrol. For his actions, the French army awarded Johnson the first major distinction for valor given—he became the first American soldier to win the Croix de Guerre. A hometown hero in Albany, Johnson was regaled at every stop on his $10,000 speaking tour. Revelry aside, Johnson had been critically wounded in battle and suffered debilitating injuries that left him in constant pain. These injuries worsened with time and Johnson died in poverty and obscurity.

Photograph: Red Cross workers distribute coffee and food

“Red Cross Aids, Red Cross Distributes Refreshments as Vets Wait in Line all Night for Bonus Loans.” [1920]. Underwood & Underwood, New York, NY. Randolph Linsly Simpson African-American Collection, Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library.

Poster: World War I: Lincoln and Emancipation

Poster: “Lincoln and Emancipation Proclamation,” [1918]. E.G. Renesch, Chicago, Ill. Randolph Linsly Simpson African-American Collection, Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library.